James J. Tissot (1836-1902, French
artist and illustrator), detail of "David Singing" (1896-1900),
watercolor. Psalms 57:7.
Larger image.
David, the shepherd boy of the Bethlehem hills, loved to sing,
sang to his sheep. Over the years he grew into a gifted
songwriter, a poet. And then, when he was but a teenager, the
Prophet Samuel came to his family's farm and poured oil over his
head, anointing David King of Israel. From that moment the Holy
Spirit of God poured over him as well. His gift of song and
poetry took on a new level of inspiration.
Over the next 600 years other God-inspired poets gave voice to
psalms, completing the collection of psalms that we know today as
the Book of Psalms, the Psalter -- 150 poetic songs that lie at
the heart of our Bibles. The Psalms express the entire spectrum of human
emotion -- fear, despair, longing, love, hope, joy, and
exultation. They also instruct us in how we can voice our own
prayers and praise to God.
What Is a Psalm?
Captive musicians from the siege of Lachish sing praises to the conqueror.
Detail of relief from SW Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh,
ca. 701 BC British Museum, London.
Larger image.
The word Psalm (Greek psalmos) translates the Hebrew
noun mizmôr, "song, instrumental music," from the verb
zāmar, "sing, sing
praise, make music." It reminds us that the Book of Psalms was --
and is -- intended for singing. This was the church's first song
book. Though we have lost the original tunes, individual psalms
have been put to music many times since. The ancient songwriters
were devout poets who put their heartfelt devotion toward God
into verse.
The Psalms are meant to be sung -- and accompanied by musical
instruments. David, the author of many of the psalms, was a skilled player
of the "harp," more accurately perhaps, the "lyre" (kinnôr),
"a musical instrument having strings and a wooden frame," and
commonly associated in the Bible with joy and gladness.2
Hebrew poetry differs from most Western poetry in
that it doesn't rhyme. There seem to be two primary elements that
distinguish Hebrew Poetry:
Thought parallelism
Imagery
In western poetry we use both rhyme and rhythm in traditional
poems. But in Hebrew poetry the rhythm may be in terms of units
per line. However, the exact nature of this is still debated and some
recent scholars have concluded that the Psalms are not metrical,
that this is an idea imported from Western poetical forms.
Longman recommends caution about any interpretation based
primarily on a verse's supposed meter.1
1. Thought Parallelism
However, the element of thought parallelism in Hebrew poetry
is quite apparent and has become better understood in recent
decades. Unlike poetry that relies on
rhyme, parallelism can be translated into other languages without losing
its distinct flavor. The two basic types of parallelism are:
Synonymous Parallelism is the most common form of parallelism.
Here the idea of the first line is reinforced in the second line.
"He does not treat us as our sins deserve
or repay us according to our iniquities." (Psalm 103:10)
You can find parallelism in Jesus' teaching, too (for example,
Matthew 5:43-45). But scholars have realized rather recently that
synonymous parallelism is something of a misnomer. The lines are
not strictly synonymous. You might describe it as "A, what's more
B." The second line always seems to carry forward the thought
found in the first phrase in some way.2 This progression is sometimes subtle, but often quite
obvious. The second -- or sometimes third line -- reinforces
and extends the meaning of the first, like a second wave that
mounts higher than the first, and a third even higher yet (for
example, Psalms 92:9; 93:3; 145:18).
When interpreting Hebrew poetry however, it's
important not to overemphasize the nuances between the similar
words,
for example, between "man" and "Son of man" in 8:4 or "my soul"
and "my flesh" in Psalm 63:1. As Kidner puts it, "They are in double
harness, rather than in competition."3 Rather look
for the ways that second idea builds upon the first.
Antithetic Parallelism is also common. The idea in the first line is
contrasted or negated in the second line as a means of
reinforcing it. It is found most commonly in the Proverbs and in the
didactic psalms.
"The wicked borrow and do not repay,
but the righteous give generously." (Psalm 37:21)
In addition to these two common forms of Hebrew parallelism,
scholars have found a number of other less prominent varieties. Hebrew poetry
was a fine art that we are just beginning to appreciate more
fully.
2. Imagery
A second common characteristic of Hebrew poetry is its use of
imagery, comparing one thing to another. Of course, imagery can be
found in prose sections of the Old Testament and it is not found
in every psalm, but it is especially rich in Hebrew poetry.
Imagery has a way of fixing an idea in our minds with clarity.
Elizabeth Jane Gardner (1837–1922), "The Shepherd David, " (ca. 1895), oil on canvas; 61 1/2 x 42 3/8 in. (156.2 x 107.6 cm), National Museum of Women in the Arts.
Larger
image.
Think about the images in the familiar 23rd Psalm. In prose we
might say with some accuracy: "God meets all our needs and
protects us." It is true, but not particularly memorable. The power and beauty
of the 23rd Psalm is the way that it communicates these ideas
through images: shepherd/sheep, green pastures/still waters, the
valley of the shadow of death, a table, an anointing, and an overflowing cup.
These images in our minds with the thoughts and emotions they
evoke contribute to make this psalm an all-time favorite.
There are two kinds of images used in the Psalms:
1. Simile is a comparison which is made explicit by the presence
of the word "like" or "as." For example:
"As the deer pants for streams of water,
So my soul pants for you, O God." (Psalm 42:1)
2. Metaphor is a comparison that is implicit, that is, a
comparison without the mention of "like" or "as." For example:
"The LORD is my shepherd, I shall not want." (Psalm 23:1)
A metaphor communicates a more vivid image than a simile
because it is implicit and draws the comparison more closely.
As you study the Psalms, be aware of the images that are used
and the thoughts and emotions that they are intended to evoke in us,
the readers.
A few psalms (9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119, 145) are
structured as an acrostic, each verse or section beginning with a
successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Exactly the function
acrostics serve, we're not sure. But the acrostics may be a way of
reflecting the order of God in creation. They may be an aid to
memorization, or simply aesthetically pleasing because of their
intricacy.4
Categories of Psalms
The twentieth century saw various attempts to classify psalms
by their structure and form, a discipline known as Form
Criticism. Hermann Gunkel, comparing the Psalms with parallels in
other ancient Near Eastern cultures, saw five major groups or genre
of psalms: hymns, community laments, individual laments, royal
psalms, and individual thanksgivings, plus some subcategories.5 Gunkel's categories have sparked intense debate. Since a number of psalms fit
into more than one
category, these categories can't be seen as rigid. A psalm genre
is a kind of template, but the author is free to improvise or
alter the template as necessary. Tremper Longman III suggests the
following genre of psalms:
The Hymn, recognized by its exuberant praise of the
Lord. Examples are abundant, such as, Psalms 8, 19, 29, 33, 47, 48, 92,
96, 103.
The Lament, the polar opposite of the hymn on the
emotional spectrum. Lamentations begin with a complaint, but often
conclude with praise. Within a lament you may find several of
the following elements: (a) invocation, (2) plea to God for
help, (3) complaints, (4) confession of sin or assertion of
innocence, (5) curse of enemies (imprecation), (6) confidence
in God's response, and (7) hymn or blessing. Examples include:
Psalm 3, 7, 13, 25, 22, 42-43, 44, 51, 74, 79, 80 and many others.
Thanksgiving Psalms. These are similar to hymns, but
particularly recount what God has done. They are closely
related to laments, in that a thanksgiving psalm is often an
answer to a lament. Examples include: Psalms 18, 30, 32, 34
Psalms of Confidence, an expression of the
psalmist's trust in God's goodness and power. Examples include
Psalms 11, 16, 23, 27, 62, 91, 121, 125, 131.
Psalms of Remembrance make reference to the great
redemptive acts of the past, particularly the Exodus (Psalm 77:16)
and the establishment of the Davidic covenant and dynasty (Psalms 89,
132). Examples are found in Psalms 78, 105, 106, 135, 136.
Wisdom Psalms tell us in concrete ways how God wants
us to live our lives. This kind of literature is found in Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. But it is also found in
several psalms, such as Psalms 1, 19, 37, 49, 119.
Kingship Psalms focus on two kings: (1) the human
king of Israel (Psalms 18, 20, 21, 45, 72, 101, 132) and (2)
God as king (Psalms 47, 98). There is also a messianic theme
throughout the Psalms collection that looks forward to the
coming Davidic king, especially in Psalms 2 and 110.6
Authorship
Of the 150 psalms, 116 include an extended title or an
ascription that is part of verse 1 in the Hebrew text. While not
part of the original text, they were probably inserted by editors
fairly early -- certainly long before the second or third century
when they were translated into Greek.
The titles at the beginning of many of the psalms, such as "of
David," use a Hebrew preposition le. It can
carry the ideas "of, for, from, at, in reference to, belonging
to." Thus "of David" could mean "belonging to David" or
"(dedicated) to David."7 In the ascription to Psalm
18 it is quite clear that authorship was intended:
"For (le) the director of music. Of (le)
David the servant of the LORD. He sang to the LORD the words of
this song when the LORD delivered him from the hand of all his
enemies and from the hand of Saul. He said...."
We do know that David was closely identified with worship
music. He sang to calm King Saul (1 Samuel 16:14-23; 18:10-11),
accompanying himself on a lyre or harp. He is called "the sweet
psalmist of Israel" (2 Samuel 23:1), and is named as an inventor
of musical instruments (Amos 6:5).
While realizing that it is not entirely certain, I am taking the
preposition le in the ascription of psalms as
primarily ascribing authorship.8 If this is indeed the case, named
authors include:
David
Named as author of nearly half
the collection
73 psalms
Asaph
Called "Asaph the Seer" (2
Chronicles 29:30), and was from a Levitical family. He founded the temple
choir as chief musician (1 Chronicles 15;17-19; chapter 16).
Psalms 50, 73-83
12
Sons of Korah
A Levitical family, singers and
musicians of the temple choir founded by Heman the Ezrahite
(1 Chronicles 6:31-46).
Psalms 42-49, 84-85, 87-88
12
Ethan the Ezrahite = Juduthun
From a Levitical family and founded
one of the temple choirs (1 Chronicles 16:41; 25:1-6).
Psalm 89, 39, 62, 77
4
Heman the Ezrahite
Called "Heman the Musician" (1
Chronicles 6:33) and was founder of a temple choir.
Psalm 88
1
Solomon
Third king of Israel
Psalms 72, 127
2
Moses
Leader during the Exodus
Psalm 90
1
No title at all
34
Date of the Psalms
While there has been considerable debate about the dating of
the Psalms as rather late, the following points should be
considered in defense of an earlier dating:
Egypt, Babylon, and Canaan all had developed psalmody
before and during Israel's residence in Palestine.
Psalmody was known from the earliest times in Israel, such
as the Song of Deborah (Judges 5) from about 1150 BC. It is
even possible that some of the psalms in our Psalter predated
David. Some of the allusions to the temple could possible refer
to the tabernacle at Shiloh, known as the "holy place" (Exodus
28:43; 29:30), "the house of the Lord" (Joshua 6:24; 1 Samuel
1:7ff; 3:3; cf. 2 Samuel 12:20).
It is difficult to imagine that psalms mentioning the king
or the ark could have been first composed after the exile.
The traces of Aramaic found in some of the psalms are no
reason to date them late, since Aramaic was known in Jerusalem
as early as the eighth century BC. The presence of Ugaritic
language affinities are witness to the early date of many of
the psalms.
The Psalms could have been written no later than the
translation of the Greek Septuagint 300-200 BC.
Thus it is likely that the Psalms were composed during the
period of the Kings and before the Maccabean period, that is, a
600 year period
between about 1000 and 400 BC.9 The dating of the
Psalms can be divided into three groups:
Pre-Exilic, written during the period of the Kings
prior to the Exile (1000-600 BC). This would include the royal
psalms, those which mention the existence of the northern
kingdom, and those with greater affinity to Ugaritic language
and syntax. David who reigned approximately 1010-970 BC was by
all accounts the most
prolific author of psalms.
Exilic, those written during the exile (605-537 BC). This
would include some of the dirge or lament psalms and perhaps
those mentioning the betrayal of Judah by her enemies. Psalm
137 recalls this period: "By the rivers of
Babylon we sat and wept when we remembered Zion...."
Post-Exilic, written after the Exile (537 to about 400 BC).
This probably includes psalms about the righteous sufferer, how
the Torah should be observed, wisdom, and cautions against atheism.
Structure of the Psalter
While the dating of the Psalms seems to be between 1000 and
400 BC, editing took place somewhat later, but by the time the
Septuagint was translated.
Recently, scholars have taken much more seriously the
composition of the Book of Psalms as a whole, as an editor put it
into final form. The Book of Psalms in our Bibles is divided into five books,
probably to echo the five books of the Pentateuch. Book 1, chapters 1-41; Book 2,
chapters 42-72; Book 3, chapters 73-89; Book 4, chapters 90-106;
and Book 5, chapters 107-150. Each of the books concludes with a
doxology, such as the last verse of Book 1:
"Praise be to the LORD, the God of Israel,
from everlasting to everlasting.
Amen and Amen." (Psalm 41:13)
Psalms begins deliberately with a psalm designed to urge the
reader to study the Psalms with the same diligence as one studied
the Torah.
"His delight is in the law of the LORD,
and on his law he meditates day and night." (Psalm 1:2)
In his careful survey of the Psalter, Gerald H. Wilson also
observes "frames" -- a Royal Covenantal Frame (Psalms 2, 72, 89,
144) and a Final Wisdom Frame (Psalms 1, 73, 90, 107, 145).10
The Psalter is much more than a haphazard compilation of
individual psalms. It is "the end result of a process of
purposeful editorial arrangement of psalms and collections of
psalms producing a unified whole."11
Canonicity of the Psalms
As the Hebrew Bible developed, it was divided into three
sections: The Law (the Pentateuch, Torah, first five books of the
Bible), the Prophets (the historical books, and the major and
minor prophets), and the Writings (Job, Psalms, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon). Some psalms scrolls found at
Qumran contain both psalms that appear in our Bibles and psalms
that "didn't make the cut." However, the canon of accepted
psalms in the Hebrew Bible seems to have been fixed by the time
of the translation of the Septuagint in the third and second
centuries BC, since it is very similar to the Book of Psalms in the Masoretic
Hebrew text that forms the basis of our modern Bibles.
Chapter and Verse Confusions
The chapter numbers were added much
later in the 13th century AD. Up until that point, individual psalms would
be referred to by their first line rather than their chapter
number. When Jesus from the cross quoted Psalm 22:1 with the
words, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" he was
probably calling the whole psalm to mind, which included the
phrase "they have pierced my hands and my feet...." (22:16b).
Adding chapter numbers and verses should have clarified
things, but in some ways they've confused matters. For example,
while the Hebrew numbering counts a psalm's inscription as verse
1, our English versions number from the verse following any
inscription. Another confusion comes from slight discrepancies
between the numbering of the Hebrew and Greek versions of Psalms.
Modern Protestant and Roman Catholic translations are based on
the Hebrew numbering, while the Catholic lectionary and Eastern
Orthodox translations are based on the Greek numbering.
Technical Terms
Some of the intriguing aspects of the psalms are technical
terms which often appear in the ascription. Unfortunately, there's lots
of speculation but not much firm knowledge about most of these.
a. Interjections.
Selah occurs 71 times. It is probably a signal for an
interlude or change of musical accompaniment, probably from the
root sll, "to lift up" or perhaps an Aramaic verb "to
bend.12
Higgaion, found in 9:16 in a note with Selah and in the text
of 19:14; and 92:3. It seems to derive from
hāgā, "meditate,
devise, plot." It may mean "meditation, whispering melody." As a
musical direction it may perhaps indicate the quieter
instruments.13
b. Classifications
Psalm (mizmôr) and Song (shîr) can't be
completely distinguished, but psalm probably implies that it was
sung to an instrumental accompaniment.14
Shiggaion (Psalm 7) seems to derive from
shāgā, "to err,
wander." Perhaps it means "wild and ecstatic" or denotes a
stirring of the emotions.15
Maskil (maskîl) designates 13 psalms. The root
śkl, denotes "insight"
or "wisdom," so a maskil might be an "efficacious psalm" or
"skillful psalm," but we don't really know the meaning.16
c. Liturgical Notes
There are a number of designations that we can only speculate
about their actual meanings. The following two, however, seem fairly well
established.
To the Choirmaster (nāṣaḥ),
"chief musician" (KJV), "leader" (NRSV), "director of music"
(NIV) occurs in 55 psalms. The Hebrew root (nāsaḥ)
means "to excel," thus "to superintend," so "choirmaster" seems
like a reasonable translation.17 Again, we're not sure
what it means.
A Song of Ascents (Psalms 120-134), ascribed to 15 psalms,
probably referring to the pilgrimage up to Jerusalem, or the
processional ascent of "the hill of the Lord" (Isaiah 30:29).18
They were used particularly during the Feast of Tabernacles.
Two other groups of psalms should also be noted:
Egyptian Hallel Psalms (Psalms 113-118) are traditionally associated
with the feast of Passover and deliverance from Egypt. Hallel
means "praise." The first half of the Hallel (Psalms 113-114) was
sung earlier in the Passover. The "hymn" that Jesus and his
disciples sang after the Last Supper (Mark 14:26; Matthew 26:30)
was, no doubt, the second half of the Hallel (Psalms 114-118 or
115-118), sung at the end of the Passover meal.19
Hallel Psalms (Psalms 146-150) were for more general use in
worship.
A Phantom New Year Festival
Before we conclude our introduction to the Psalms, it's
important to mention a wrong turn in twentieth century Psalms
studies. As mentioned above, Gunkel's categories of Psalm forms came
out of a study of literature of other Near Eastern cultures and,
as a whole, has been helpful in better understanding the Psalms
as literature. However, this comparative religions approach led
several leading scholars, beginning with Gunkel and Mowinckel, to argue that a
high percentage of Israel's psalms must be related to an
Israelite New Year Festival, celebrated in the autumn, in which
the Lord's kingship was annually reaffirmed over the forces of
chaos. This hypotheses relies on the existence of an Israelite
festival corresponding to the Babylonian Akitu festival.
However, there is nothing in the Psalms or the Old Testament that
suggests celebration of such a festival in Israel.20
Arthur Weiser later modified this hypothesis to the celebration
of an autumn covenant festival, but the evidence of such a
festival just isn't there.
The
unfortunate result is that the commentaries that adopted these
hypotheses are much less useful than they would have been if they
had limited their search for a life-setting within the history
and culture of Israel itself. The emphasis on determining the
life setting (Sitz im Leben) of a psalm is good, but the
fact is that most of the psalms just don't provide much context
to the reasons for their composition and we must accept that
limitation rather than import speculative theories to "guide" our
interpretation.
Authority of the Psalms
The New Testament quotes the Psalms extensively. But note the
reverent way in which the author of Hebrews quoted passages from Psalms:
Jesus too regarded the Psalms as inspired Scripture.
"This is what I told you while I was still with you:
Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the
Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms." (Luke 24:44)
"David himself, speaking by the Holy Spirit, declared....
(Mark 12:35, regarding Psalm 110:1)
"This is to fulfill the scripture...." (John 13:18
regarding Psalm 41:9)
Jesus interpreted Psalm 118:22 as predictive prophecy
concerning himself (Matthew 21:42-43).
Hopefully this rather academic introduction doesn't ruin the
Psalms for you. Ultimately they find their highest use in
inspiring believers to trust in God in spite of the tough times
we may go through in our lives. And in that role of inspiring us
humans, some of the psalms in our Bibles are old enough to
have done admirably for a full three thousand years. How about
that for enduring value!
References
Longman, How to Read the Psalms, p. 108.
He cites his article, "A Critique of Two Recent Metrical
Systems," Biblica 63 (1982):230-254.
Longman, How to Read the Psalms, pp. 97-98.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, p. 2.
Longman, How to
Read the Psalms, pp. 107-108.
For a helpful examination of prayers in neighboring
cultures, see Tremper Longman III, "Ancient Near Eastern Prayer
Genres," in Firth and Johnston, Interpreting
the Psalms, pp. 41-59.
Longman, How to
Read the Psalms, chapter 19.
Craigie, Psalms 1-50, p. 35.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, p. 33.
This section draws on material from Harrison, Introduction,
pp. 983-985 and lecture notes from David J. Cline.
David M. Howard, Jr., "The Psalms and Current Study," in
Firth and Johnston, Interpreting the Psalms, pp. 25-29; and Gerald
H. Wilson, "The Structure of the Psalter," Ibid.,
pp. 229-246.
Gerald H. Wilson, Ibid., p. 229.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, pp. 36-37.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, p. 37. Herbert Wolf, hāgā, TWOT #467c.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, p. 37.
Ibid.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, p. 37; Herbert Wolf, śākal, TWOT 2263b.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, pp. 40; Milton C. Fisher,
nāṣaḥ, TWOT 1402.
Kidner, Psalms 1-72, p. 43.
Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus
(Oxford: Basil Blackwood, 1955), pp. 30-31, especially fn. 1 on
page 31.
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